- إنضم
- 12 يونيو 2015
- المشاركات
- 208
- التفاعل
حقيقه هذا مقال عن تاريخ الصواريخ
وجدته في موقع لتطوير اللغه الانجليزيه
ترجمة اغلب الموضوع
ماشدني لترجمه ان العرب كان لهم اثر في علم الصواريخ
اعتذر اذا فيه اخطاء في الترجمه ويشرفني تعديل اي احد عليه
واعتذر عن جودة التنسيق لان كمبيوتري لايوجد فيه لغه عربية
لاأعرف اين القسم المناسب للموضوع
وجدته في موقع لتطوير اللغه الانجليزيه
ترجمة اغلب الموضوع
ماشدني لترجمه ان العرب كان لهم اثر في علم الصواريخ
اعتذر اذا فيه اخطاء في الترجمه ويشرفني تعديل اي احد عليه
واعتذر عن جودة التنسيق لان كمبيوتري لايوجد فيه لغه عربية
لاأعرف اين القسم المناسب للموضوع
مفهوم الصاروخ، أو بالأحرى آلية وراء فكرة دفع جسم في الهواء، قد بدأت لأكثر من ألفي سنة. ومع ذلك، لم يكن حتى اكتشاف مبدأ رد الفعل، الذي هو مفتاح السفر إلى الفضاء وذلك يمثل واحدا من أعظم إنجازات في تاريخ الفكر العلمي. أن تكنولوجيا الصواريخ كانت قادرة على التطور. ليس فقط لأنها تحل مشكلة أطلاق الصواريخ، ولكن الأهم من ذلك، أنها فتحت الباب أمام استكشاف الكون
اكتشاف الفكره كان رائع ذلك الوقت على الرغم من أنه قد لا يضمن تلقائيا أن الانتقال يتم من النظرية إلى التطبيق. على الرغم من أن الصواريخ قد استخدمت بشكل متقطع لعدة مئات من السنين، وأنها ظلت حرفة صغيرة نسبيا من ماهي عليه في القرن العشرين. حيث حضيت بجهود هائلة، وتسارعت خلال حربين عالميتين
ويرتبط اختراع الصواريخ باختراع "مسحوق أسود(اتوقع ان المقصود الكبريت ). معظم مؤرخين التكنولوجيا يقولن انه اكتشاف من قبل الصينين في القرن الثالث عشر (هناك شرح باللغه الانجليزيه لشكل الصاروخ).
تم قام العرب بتطوير صناعة الصواريخ (هناك شرح باللغه الانجليزيه لشكل الصاروخ)
في القرن الثامن عشر أصبحت أوروبا مهتمة جديا في إمكانية استخدام الصاروخ نفسه كسلاح في الحرب وليس فقط لدفع أسلحة أخرى. وقبل ذلك تم استخدام الصواريخ فقط في عرض الألعاب النارية. وجاء استخدام الصواريخ ضد الاعداء ليس من داخل القارة الأوروبية ولكن من الهند، التي استخدمت الصواريخ بنجاح ضد البريطانيين في أواخر القرن الثامن عشر.
وقد وصفت الصواريخ الهندية التي استخدمت ضد البريطانيين من قبل الحامية البريطانية التي تخدم في الهند "مغلف من الحديد حوالي 200 ملم طويلاً، و 40 مليمتر في القطر مع نقاط حادة في الأعلى وعصا طويلة ٣ متر للتوجيه".
في أوائل القرن التاسع عشر بدأ البريطانيون في تجربة صواريخ ابل الحارقة. اختلف الصاروخ البريطاني من النسخة الهندية في ذلك الوقت كان مغطى تماما في اسطوانة من الحديد تنتهي في رأس مخروطي الشكل، بقياس متر واحد مع وجود عصا ما يقرب من خمسة أمتار طولا والتي شيدت حتى تربط بقوة إلى جسم الصاروخ.
وصنع الأميركيين صاروخ كامل مع قاذف خاص به لاستخدامه ضد المكسيكيين في منتصف القرن التاسع عشر. وكان أنبوب أسطواني طويل ممع اثنين من العصي وتثبيتها على الجزء العلوي من قاذفة، مما يسمح للصواريخ تدرج لاحقا وكذالك مضاءة من الطرف الآخر. ومع ذلك، كانت النتائج في بعض الأحيان غير مثيرة للإعجاب كما كان سلوك الصواريخ في الجو لا يمكن التنبؤ به.
ومنذ ذلك الحين، حدثت تطورات هائلة في تكنولوجيا الصواريخ، في كثير من الأحيان مع نتائج مدمرة في الحرب. ومع ذلك، فإن برامج الفضاء في العصر الحديث مدينون بنجاحها إلى البدايات المتواضعة لتلك في القرون السابقة الذي طور أسس مبدأ
رد الفعل. من يدري ما سيكون عليه في المستقبل؟
THE ROCKET - FROM EAST TO WEST
A The concept of the rocket, or rather the mechanism behind the idea of propelling an object into the air, has been around for well over two thousand years. However, it wasn’t until the discovery of the reaction principle, which was the key to space travel and so represents one of the great milestones in the history of scientific thought that rocket technology was able to develop. Not only did it solve a problem that had intrigued man for ages, but, more importantly, it literally opened the door to exploration of the universe.
B An intellectual breakthrough, brilliant though it may be, does not automatically ensure that the transition is made from theory to practice. Despite the fact that rockets had been used sporadically for several hundred years, they remained a relatively minor artefact of civilisation until the twentieth century. Prodigious efforts, accelerated during two world wars, were required before the technology of primitive rocketry could be translated into the reality of sophisticated astronauts. It is strange that the rocket was generally ignored by writers of fiction to transport their heroes to mysterious realms beyond the Earth, even though it had been commonly used in fireworks displays in China since the thirteenth century. The reason is that nobody associated the reaction principle with the idea of travelling through space to a neighbouring world.
C A simple analogy can help us to understand how a rocket operates. It is much like a machine gun mounted on the rear of a boat. In reaction to the backward discharge of bullets, the gun, and hence the boat, move forwards. A rocket motor’s ‘bullets’ are minute, high-speed particles produced by burning propellants in a suitable chamber. The reaction to the ejection of these small particles causes the rocket to move forwards. There is evidence that the reaction principle was applied practically well before the rocket was invented. In his Noctes Atticae or Greek Nights, Aulus Gellius describes ‘the pigeon of Archytas’, an invention dating back to about 360 BC. Cylindrical in shape, made of wood, and hanging from string, it was moved to and fro by steam blowing out from small exhaust ports at either end. The reaction to the discharging steam provided the bird with motive power.
D The invention of rockets is linked inextricably with the invention of ‘black powder’. Most historians of technology credit the Chinese with its discovery. They base their belief on studies of Chinese writings or on the notebooks of early Europeans who settled in or made long visits to China to study its history and civilisation. It is probable that, some time in the tenth century, black powder was first compounded from its basic ingredients of saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur. But this does not mean that it was immediately used to propel rockets. By the thirteenth century, powderpropelled fire arrows had become rather common. The Chinese relied on this type of technological development to produce incendiary projectiles of many sorts, explosive grenades and possibly cannons to repel their enemies. One such weapon was the ‘basket of fire’ or, as directly translated from Chinese, the ‘arrows like flying leopards’. The 0.7 metre-long arrows, each with a long tube of gunpowder attached near the point of each arrow, could be fired from a long, octagonal-shaped basket at the same time and had a range of 400 paces. Another weapon was the ‘arrow as a flying sabre’, which could be fired from crossbows. The rocket, placed in a similar position to other rocket-propelled arrows, was designed to increase the range. A small iron weight was attached to the 1.5m bamboo shaft, just below the feathers, to increase the arrow’s stability by moving the centre of gravity to a position below the rocket. At a similar time, the Arabs had developed the ‘egg which moves and burns’. This ‘egg’ was apparently full of gunpowder and stabilised by a 1.5m tail. It was fired using two rockets attached to either side of this tail.
E It was not until the eighteenth century that Europe became seriously interested in the possibilities of using the rocket itself as a weapon of war and not just to propel other weapons. Prior to this, rockets were used only in pyrotechnic displays. The incentive for the more aggressive use of rockets came not from within the European continent but from far-away India, whose leaders had built up a corps of rocketeers and used rockets successfully against the British in the late eighteenth century. The Indian rockets used against the British were described by a British Captain serving in India as ‘an iron envelope about 200 millimetres long and 40 millimetres in diameter with sharp points at the top and a 3m-long bamboo guiding stick’. In the early nineteenth century the British began to experiment with incendiary barrage rockets. The British rocket differed from the Indian version in that it was completely encased in a stout, iron cylinder, terminating in a conical head, measuring one metre in diameter and having a stick almost five metres long and constructed in such a way that it could be firmly attached to the body of the rocket. The Americans developed a rocket, complete with its own launcher, to use against the Mexicans in the mid-nineteenth century. A long cylindrical tube was propped up by two sticks and fastened to the top of the launcher, thereby allowing the rockets to be inserted and lit from the other end. However, the results were sometimes not that impressive as the behaviour of the rockets in flight was less than predictable.
F Since then, there have been huge developments in rocket technology, often with devastating results in the forum of war. Nevertheless, the modern day space programs owe their success to the humble beginnings of those in previous centuries who developed the foundations of the reaction principle. Who knows what it will be like in the future?
http://www.ielts-exam.net/docs/Reading/IELTS_Reading_12_Passage_1.htm
في القرن الثامن عشر أصبحت أوروبا مهتمة جديا في إمكانية استخدام الصاروخ نفسه كسلاح في الحرب وليس فقط لدفع أسلحة أخرى. وقبل ذلك تم استخدام الصواريخ فقط في عرض الألعاب النارية. وجاء استخدام الصواريخ ضد الاعداء ليس من داخل القارة الأوروبية ولكن من الهند، التي استخدمت الصواريخ بنجاح ضد البريطانيين في أواخر القرن الثامن عشر.
وقد وصفت الصواريخ الهندية التي استخدمت ضد البريطانيين من قبل الحامية البريطانية التي تخدم في الهند "مغلف من الحديد حوالي 200 ملم طويلاً، و 40 مليمتر في القطر مع نقاط حادة في الأعلى وعصا طويلة ٣ متر للتوجيه".
في أوائل القرن التاسع عشر بدأ البريطانيون في تجربة صواريخ ابل الحارقة. اختلف الصاروخ البريطاني من النسخة الهندية في ذلك الوقت كان مغطى تماما في اسطوانة من الحديد تنتهي في رأس مخروطي الشكل، بقياس متر واحد مع وجود عصا ما يقرب من خمسة أمتار طولا والتي شيدت حتى تربط بقوة إلى جسم الصاروخ.
وصنع الأميركيين صاروخ كامل مع قاذف خاص به لاستخدامه ضد المكسيكيين في منتصف القرن التاسع عشر. وكان أنبوب أسطواني طويل ممع اثنين من العصي وتثبيتها على الجزء العلوي من قاذفة، مما يسمح للصواريخ تدرج لاحقا وكذالك مضاءة من الطرف الآخر. ومع ذلك، كانت النتائج في بعض الأحيان غير مثيرة للإعجاب كما كان سلوك الصواريخ في الجو لا يمكن التنبؤ به.
ومنذ ذلك الحين، حدثت تطورات هائلة في تكنولوجيا الصواريخ، في كثير من الأحيان مع نتائج مدمرة في الحرب. ومع ذلك، فإن برامج الفضاء في العصر الحديث مدينون بنجاحها إلى البدايات المتواضعة لتلك في القرون السابقة الذي طور أسس مبدأ
رد الفعل. من يدري ما سيكون عليه في المستقبل؟
THE ROCKET - FROM EAST TO WEST
A The concept of the rocket, or rather the mechanism behind the idea of propelling an object into the air, has been around for well over two thousand years. However, it wasn’t until the discovery of the reaction principle, which was the key to space travel and so represents one of the great milestones in the history of scientific thought that rocket technology was able to develop. Not only did it solve a problem that had intrigued man for ages, but, more importantly, it literally opened the door to exploration of the universe.
B An intellectual breakthrough, brilliant though it may be, does not automatically ensure that the transition is made from theory to practice. Despite the fact that rockets had been used sporadically for several hundred years, they remained a relatively minor artefact of civilisation until the twentieth century. Prodigious efforts, accelerated during two world wars, were required before the technology of primitive rocketry could be translated into the reality of sophisticated astronauts. It is strange that the rocket was generally ignored by writers of fiction to transport their heroes to mysterious realms beyond the Earth, even though it had been commonly used in fireworks displays in China since the thirteenth century. The reason is that nobody associated the reaction principle with the idea of travelling through space to a neighbouring world.
C A simple analogy can help us to understand how a rocket operates. It is much like a machine gun mounted on the rear of a boat. In reaction to the backward discharge of bullets, the gun, and hence the boat, move forwards. A rocket motor’s ‘bullets’ are minute, high-speed particles produced by burning propellants in a suitable chamber. The reaction to the ejection of these small particles causes the rocket to move forwards. There is evidence that the reaction principle was applied practically well before the rocket was invented. In his Noctes Atticae or Greek Nights, Aulus Gellius describes ‘the pigeon of Archytas’, an invention dating back to about 360 BC. Cylindrical in shape, made of wood, and hanging from string, it was moved to and fro by steam blowing out from small exhaust ports at either end. The reaction to the discharging steam provided the bird with motive power.
D The invention of rockets is linked inextricably with the invention of ‘black powder’. Most historians of technology credit the Chinese with its discovery. They base their belief on studies of Chinese writings or on the notebooks of early Europeans who settled in or made long visits to China to study its history and civilisation. It is probable that, some time in the tenth century, black powder was first compounded from its basic ingredients of saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur. But this does not mean that it was immediately used to propel rockets. By the thirteenth century, powderpropelled fire arrows had become rather common. The Chinese relied on this type of technological development to produce incendiary projectiles of many sorts, explosive grenades and possibly cannons to repel their enemies. One such weapon was the ‘basket of fire’ or, as directly translated from Chinese, the ‘arrows like flying leopards’. The 0.7 metre-long arrows, each with a long tube of gunpowder attached near the point of each arrow, could be fired from a long, octagonal-shaped basket at the same time and had a range of 400 paces. Another weapon was the ‘arrow as a flying sabre’, which could be fired from crossbows. The rocket, placed in a similar position to other rocket-propelled arrows, was designed to increase the range. A small iron weight was attached to the 1.5m bamboo shaft, just below the feathers, to increase the arrow’s stability by moving the centre of gravity to a position below the rocket. At a similar time, the Arabs had developed the ‘egg which moves and burns’. This ‘egg’ was apparently full of gunpowder and stabilised by a 1.5m tail. It was fired using two rockets attached to either side of this tail.
E It was not until the eighteenth century that Europe became seriously interested in the possibilities of using the rocket itself as a weapon of war and not just to propel other weapons. Prior to this, rockets were used only in pyrotechnic displays. The incentive for the more aggressive use of rockets came not from within the European continent but from far-away India, whose leaders had built up a corps of rocketeers and used rockets successfully against the British in the late eighteenth century. The Indian rockets used against the British were described by a British Captain serving in India as ‘an iron envelope about 200 millimetres long and 40 millimetres in diameter with sharp points at the top and a 3m-long bamboo guiding stick’. In the early nineteenth century the British began to experiment with incendiary barrage rockets. The British rocket differed from the Indian version in that it was completely encased in a stout, iron cylinder, terminating in a conical head, measuring one metre in diameter and having a stick almost five metres long and constructed in such a way that it could be firmly attached to the body of the rocket. The Americans developed a rocket, complete with its own launcher, to use against the Mexicans in the mid-nineteenth century. A long cylindrical tube was propped up by two sticks and fastened to the top of the launcher, thereby allowing the rockets to be inserted and lit from the other end. However, the results were sometimes not that impressive as the behaviour of the rockets in flight was less than predictable.
F Since then, there have been huge developments in rocket technology, often with devastating results in the forum of war. Nevertheless, the modern day space programs owe their success to the humble beginnings of those in previous centuries who developed the foundations of the reaction principle. Who knows what it will be like in the future?
http://www.ielts-exam.net/docs/Reading/IELTS_Reading_12_Passage_1.htm
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